Surgical Offloading Great Toe

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Medical Alliance for the Preservation of the Lower Extremity

Surgical Offloading of Wounds of the Great Toe

We discuss the traditional, conservative, non-surgical ways to offload a wound through offloading here.

And we discuss why surgical offloading is a concept worth considering generally, even in patients who may be traditionally slow to heal here. If you haven't read that page, it might be worth starting with that page before reading this page.

Here we discuss some of the more specific ways we might wish to

surgically offload an ulcer on the great toe (or hallux, in medical terminology).

And we discuss why surgically addressing ulcers on the great toe in particular often makes a great deal of sense.

The great toe (or hallux in medical terminology) is the single most common location for a diabetic or neuropathic wound to form--accounting for something on the order of 1/4 to 1/3 of all such neuropathic ulcers.

Birke JA, Sims DS. Plantar sensory threshold in the ulcerative foot. Lepr Rev 1986;57:261-7. This study found 25% of ulcers in leprosy patients involved the hallux (N=132); 24% in diabetics (N=45)

Ambegoda, A L A M C & R Wijesekera, J & I Panditharathne, K & Gamage, Rehan & S Mudalige, C & Piyasiri, Ruvini. (2015).

Analysis of Severity and Anatomical Distribution of Diabetic Foot Ulcers; A Single Unit Experience 1 A L A M. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies. 2. 1-10. 10.4038/ijms.v2i1.58. This study (N=45) found 24.4% of diabetic ulcers were in the hallux

Molines-Barroso RJ, Lázaro-Martínez JL, Beneit-Montesinos JV, Álvaro-Afonso FJ, García-Morales E, García-Álvarez Y. Predictors of Diabetic Foot Reulceration beneath the Hallux. J Diabetes Res. 2019 Jan 8;2019:9038171.

doi: 10.1155/2019/9038171. eCollection 2019.

This study states that one-third of all diabetic ulcers are hallux ulcers.

Ledoux WR, Shofer JB, Cowley MS, Ahroni JH, Cohen V, Boyko EJ. Diabetic foot ulcer incidence in relation to plantar pressure magnitude and measurement location J Diabetes Complications.

2013;27(6):621–626. doi:10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2013.07.004

This study suggests hallux ulcers make up 40.4% of diabetic ulcers (N=47)

And ulcers in this location are among the most notorious in their tendency to recur. In one study, 83% of hallux ulcers were seen to return within 31.5 months of the study.

Peters EJ, Armstrong DG, Lavery LA. Risk factors for recurrent diabetic foot ulcers: site matters.
Diabetes Care. 2007 Aug;30(8):2077-9.
Epub 2007 May 16. PubMed PMID: 17507693.

Why hallux ulcers recur at so high a frequency has been a matter of debate.

We certainly knew that there is a great deal of pressure and shear (friction) applied to the great toe in gait, but the heel and the ball of the foot bear a lot of force in gait, too.

The question is what specific factors are responsible for this increase in ulceration rate in this location.

A number of possible factors have been suggested.

However, in 2019, researchers in Spain examined over two dozen potential factors suggested as a cause of hallux re-ulceration, including the patient’s age, blood sugar level (Hg A1c), circulation (Ankle-Brachial Index), body-mass index, duration of diabetes, the presence of nephropathy and retinopathy, great toe joint range of motion, ankle range of motion, inversion and eversion ranges of motion, and a half dozen angles of bone orientation.

In the end, the only variables found to be associated with the time to hallux ulceration were increased body-mass index and a diminished range of great toe joint motion.

This effect is demonstrated in one study of hallux ulcers, where 28 patients of 29 patients with ulcers beneath the great toe had a limitation of motion.

Boffeli TJ, Bean JK, Natwick JR. Biomechanical abnormalities and ulcers of the great toe in patients with diabetes. J Foot Ankle Surg 2002;41:359-64

Normally we have between 60-65 degrees of motion

about the big toe joint.

To the right we see a great toe with even more range

of motion than typical.

However, sometimes people have very poor range of

motion about the big toe joint. This is known as hallux

limitus (if a mild or moderate limitation of motion exists)

or hallux rigidus (if the limitation is more severe).

No motion at the great toe joint (1st MTPJ or 1st metatarsophalangeal joint)

To the left we see the great toe barely bends at all even when we try pushing toe. This is hallux rigidus.

The joint that is supposed to bend is known as the 1st metatarsophalangeal joint or 1st MTPJ for short.

To the right we see another example of hallux rigidus. The great toe joint doesn't bend at all at the base of the toe (1st MTPJ).

As a result, you can see excessive motion at the next joint, the joint between the toe bones. This joint is called the interphalangeal joint or IPJ.

The result of the hyperextending IPJ is more pressure on the bottom of the toe. This has resulted in early callus development at the bottom of the toe.

A callus like this is the first step towards ulcer formation.

Interphalangeal joint (IPJ)

"If you have spent two years in bed trying to wiggle your big toe, everything else seems easy."

--Franklin Delano Roosevelt

Callus (Marks Pressure Site)

Why Does Great Toe Joint Motion Become Limited?

Limitation of motion of the great toe joint commonly originates with a biomechanical abnormality resulting

in elevation of the first metatarsal bone--the bone to

which the great toe attaches to the foot.

A variety of biomechanical issues can cause this. A

longer-than-normal first metatarsal is one example.

An excessively mobile first metatarsal is another.

But the most common cause of limited motion in a great toe joint is a foot that excessively pronates or flattens in stance--as seen to the left.

We mentioned above how body weight was also related to ulcer recurrence in this location. Extra weight not only increase pressure directly, but it also causes the foot to pronate more.

When the foot rolls in like this, there is more pressure on that side of the foot and the 1st metatarsal (base of the big toe) tends to elevate.

A great toe joint is often normal in appearance and in motion when the patient is not bearing weight, but when it elevates in stance, it makes it more difficult for the great toe to get up and around the first metatarsal in order to bend.

A limitation in motion about the great toe joint that is seen only in gait, but has no structural limitation of motion (like arthritis or a bony blockage), is called functional hallux limitus or FHL. FHL is extremely common, and a major factor in the formation of hallux ulcers.

M. K. Allen, T. J. Cuddeford, W. M. Glasoe et al.,
“Relationship between static mobility of the first

ray and first ray, midfoot, and hindfoot motion
during gait,” Foot & Ankle International, vol. 25,

no. 6, pp. 391–396, 2004.

E. Maceira and M. Monteagudo, “Functional hallux
rigidus and the Achilles-calcaneus-plantar system,”

Foot and Ankle Clinics, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 669–699, 2014.

You can see an elevated first metatarsal in the

standing x-ray to the right. Note how the bone

is elevated, but there are no arthritic changes.

If a great toe tries to bend, it is blocked by the

first metatarsal, and cannot bend upwards.

This can cause extra pressure to built up on the

great toe, creating a callus or an ulcer.

At this early stage, with little to no arthritic

change seen in the joint, a specialized orthotic

can be made to allow the 1st metatarsal to

drop, thereby increasing great toe joint motion.

And surgeries to shorten, drop or decompress

the great toe joint may be considered in healthy

patients. These can restore range of motion in

the great toe joint and resolve ulcers under the

great toe.

Eventually, as the base of the big toe continually

bangs into the elevated metatarsal, we begin

to see bone changes--enlargements of bone

(known as spurs) that develop on the top of

the joint, as seen to the right.

This bony build up further blocks the ability of

the big toe to bend up, increasing pressure on

the bottom of the big toe, leading to ulceration.

First metatarsal elevating relative

to the other metatarsals.

1st Metatarsal

When a bony build up is physically blocking great toe joint motion, this is known as a structural or bony hallux limitus.

Surgeries at this stage involve removing the bony spur, possibly with other procedures. Removing a bump like this is not overly invasive as a procedure, and can be performed under local anesthetic. The patient may walk immediately afterward. However, arthritic changes (meaning wear and tear on the cartilage surfaces between the bones) soon develop in the joint, and these arthritic changes may limit motion even if the spur is removed.

1st metatarsophalangeal joint

(1st MTPJ)

Over time, the spur on top of the joint enlarges, you may see flattening of the joint surfaces and loose fragments of bone in the joint space, something known as a joint mouse (left).

These changes act like a door jam, further blocking movement.

As the edges of the joint degenerate, the joint space

between the great toe and the first metatarsal becomes

narrowed and irregular. This is because the joint surfaces

are covered with cartilage, something invisible on x-ray.

As the cartilage wears down, there is less separating the

bones, and they get closer and closer to each other.

Eventually the bones are close enough to touch.

This is severe arthritis. And the motion about the joint will be

greatly restricted or even absent.

In severe cases, there may be complete obliteration of the joint space. In severe cases of arthritis like this, there will be little to no motion about the great toe joint.

This is hallux rigidus.

Ulcers of the big toe are often found directly beneath the big toe, as seen in the three images below. This location is common when the lack of great toe joint motion causes direct pressure under the great toe.

Other times, ulcers are seen more on the side of the big toe (as seen below). When ulcers are seen a bit off to the side of the great toe, as seen in the photos below, it means friction or shear is part of the cause.

Shear or friction that causes an ulcer to form on the side of the big toe may arise from a great toe that

is turned on its side, in what is known as a valgus position. We see this in the examples on the left and right.

Note how the nails of the big toes are turned on their side. This shows the degree of rotation present.

A great toe rolling on its side like this is common with bunion formation--an enlarged great toe joint with a crooked great toe (left and right).

And it's common in very pronated feet (where the foot is rolling inwards and the arch is collapsing, as seen to the right.

Bunion

Bunion

Leg Rotating Inwards; Arch Collapsing

Ulcers forming on the inside edge of the great toe are common, too, in out-toed feet.

With an out-toed gait, the great toe may be straight compared to the foot, but the whole foot is pointed away from the centre-line of the body. And as the body moves forward, weight is transferred off the side of the big toe.

This creates friction or shear on the side of the big toe--forces that can create an ulcer in that location.

So a variety of mechanical forces can cause an ulcer to form on the big toe. Some of the most common causes are a stiff great toe joint, a foot that is too pronated (one that rolls in too much), a bunion deformity with a crooked big toe, and an out-toed gait.

So Why Do Ulcers On The Big Toe Frequently Need Surgical Intervention?

As discussed on the top of this page, ulcers of the great toe joint are the most common site of ulcer formation, and ulcers of the great toe have an extremely high recurrence rate (over 80% within three years).

The danger is that about a third of ulcers become infected within 12 weeks of formation, and eventually more than half become infected.

Lavery LA, Fulmer J, Shebetka KA, Regulski M, Vayser D, Fried D, Kashefsky H,

Owings TM, Nadarajah J; Grafix Diabetic Foot Ulcer Study Group. The efficacy and

safety of Grafix(®) for the treatment of chronic diabetic foot ulcers: results of

a multi-centre, controlled, randomised, blinded, clinical trial. Int Wound J.

2014 Oct;11(5):554-60. doi: 10.1111/iwj.12329. Epub 2014 Jul 21. PubMed PMID:

25048468.

Marston WA, Hanft J, Norwood P, Pollak R; Dermagraft Diabetic Foot Ulcer Study

Group. The efficacy and safety of Dermagraft in improving the healing of chronic

diabetic foot ulcers: results of a prospective randomized trial. Diabetes Care.

2003 Jun;26(6):1701-5. PubMed PMID: 12766097.

Veves A, Falanga V, Armstrong DG, Sabolinski ML; Apligraf Diabetic Foot Ulcer

Study. Graftskin, a human skin equivalent, is effective in the management of

noninfected neuropathic diabetic foot ulcers: a prospective randomized

multicenter clinical trial. Diabetes Care. 2001 Feb;24(2):290-5. PubMed PMID:

11213881.

Prompers L, Huijberts M, Apelqvist J, et al. Optimal organization of health care in diabetic
foot disease: introduction to the Eurodiale study. Int J Low Extrem Wounds 2007;6:11-7.

Each infection puts the patient at risk for amputation, with the risk becoming greater as the patient ages and the patient's health declines. And amputations tend to lead to a domino effect of more ulcers and more amputations.

The high recurrence rate, the high tendency for infection, the rising risk of amputation over time mean that surgical intervention to correct the cause of the ulceration is often indicated.

Surgery of the Great Toe Joint

In patients with ulcers, what is commonly indicated is a simple surgery to resolve arthritis and increase range of motion of the great toe joint--yet a procedure that allows for speedy healing and weight bearing.

Often the procedure indicated in cases of hallux limitus or rigidus is a 1st metatarsophalangeal joint arthroplasty or Keller procedure.

First described in 1904 by Colonel William Lordan Keller (1874-1959), the Keller arthroplasty involves removing the base of the great toe joint as shown below.

Keller WL.The surgical treatment of bunions and
hallux valgus. New York Medical Journal. 1904; 80:741.

For a biographical background on Dr. Keller, and
the origin of this image, visit

https://kach.amedd.army.mil/AboutUs/SitePages/COL%20Keller%27s%20Biography.aspx

Dr. Colonel William Lordan Keller

(1878 - 1959). Known as the "Grand Old Man of Army Medicine," Keller served in front-line hospitals in WWI, then led surgical services at Walter Reed from 1918-1935. He has a hospital named after him at the US Military Academy at West Point

Below left you can see an example of a patient with significant arthritis of the great toe joint. To the right you can see a red, transverse line drawn where the bone may be cut.

When the bone cut is made and the fragment is removed, as with the example to the right, we create a space between the two remaining bone fragments.

To keep the edges of the remaining bones from grinding together, the soft tissues surrounding the joint are placed between the bones, acting as a cushion and keeping the toe from shortening too much.

There's no more arthritis blocking motion. The remaining bones are separated and cushioned.

And the procedure decompresses the joint, also addressing the limitation of motion caused by functional hallux limitus.

We can determine the increase range of motionon the operative table, immediately following

the surgery as seen to the right.

To the left is a patient who had been treated surgically by the author over ten years earlier. It's difficult to see the scar on the top of the great toe joint. The toe now bends, and, most importantly, there has been no ulcer in the past ten years since the surgery.

Hallux Base Ulcers

On less frequent occasions, hallux ulcers appear on the base of the 1st bone of the great toe--the proximal phalanx.

These ulcers are not where most great toe ulcers are (where the gloved thumb is).

And it's not under the metatarsal head (white arrow).

With the bones drawn out in black, one can see that the ulcer resides under the base of that 1st toe bone.

And one can also see how the Keller procedure, (removing the area marked in red), would resolve the ulcer, as that section of bone is removed so there is no pressure exerted to create the ulcer.

Another example is seen to the right.

The ulcer is not located under the ball of the foot--the metatarsal head marked with the white arrow.

The ulcer is located where the toe is bending.

With the bones drawn, it is again easy to see the the ulcer is located over the base of the first toe bone.

Removing the base of the toe (red lines) will remove pressure from the ulcer at this site, too, and give it the ulcer the opportunity to heal.

How successful is this surgery for great toe ulcers?

For some examples of individual studies, a 2023 retrospective study out of India examined 105 diabetic patients with great toe ulcers and found that all healed in the immediate post op period. There was an

8.5% recurrence rate (6 patients) In 30 months of follow up, with a mean time to recurrence of 2.5 years.

Periasamy M, Muthukumar V, Reddy RM, Asokan K, Sabapathy SR.

Outcomes of Keller gap arthroplasty for plantar hallux interphalangeal

joint ulcers in patients with diabetes mellitus. Foot Ankle Int. 2023;44(3):192-199. doi:10.1177/10711007231152883

A 2015 study from Israel of 28 procedures, all ulcers treated with a Keller procedure healed in just 3.1 weeks. Complications of infection and slow wound closure occurred in six procedures (21%). The rest returned to normal activity by 4 weeks. At 26 months, 78% had no ulcer recurrence.

Tamir E, Tamir J, Beer Y, Kosashvili Y, Finestone AS. Resection Arthroplasty for Resistant Ulcers

Underlying the Hallux in Insensate Diabetics. Foot Ankle Int. 2015 Aug;36(8):969-75.

doi: 10.1177/1071100715577952. Epub 2015 Mar 25. PubMed PMID: 25810459.

In a 2003 US study of ulcers under the great toe, those treated with a Keller arthroplasty were compared to those who received conservative, non-surgical treatment. Those treated with surgery healed at 24.2 days. Patients treated with non-surgical care took 67.1 days, 2.8 times longer.

Those treated with surgery had a re-ulceration rate of 4.8% within 6 months of follow up. Those who were treated non-surgically had a 35% re-ulceration rate in the first 6 months after closure, 7.3 times higher. Those treated with surgery had an amputation rate of 4.8%. Those treated with non-surgical care had a 10% amputation rate--twice as high. Infection rates were similar (40% vs 38.1%, respectively).

Armstrong DG, Lavery LA, Vazquez JR, Short B, Kimbriel HR, Nixon BP, Boulton AJ. Clinical efficacy

of the first metatarsophalangeal joint arthroplasty as a curative procedure for hallux interphalangeal

joint wounds in patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2003 Dec;26(12):3284-7.

A 2021 study looking at the Keller procedure found that of the ulcer patients (N=15), the mean time to healing was 22.2 days. There were no amputations.

Frykberg RG, Banks J. Keller arthroplasty: A cure for the chronic hallux ulceration, hallux limitus and degenerative hallux valgus—A retrospective study. Diabetic Foot. 2021;24(4):2.

In another study (N=14), a Keller arthroplasty provided wound healing for 93% in 14-23 days versus an average of 47 days with total contact cast, and the re-ulceration rate was 0% with surgery vs 19% with total contact casting.

Lin SS, Bono CM, Lee TH. Total contact casting and Keller arthroplasty for diabetic great toe ulceration

under the interphalangeal joint. Foot Ankle Int. 2000 Jul;21(7):588-93. PubMed PMID: 10919626.

Putting it all together, a 2024 meta-analysis (which looked at 11 studies of the Keller and hallux IPJ arthroplasty--discussed below--and combined results), they found a 94% healing rate, with a mean healing time of 3.1 weeks, plus or minus 0.4 weeks. Recurrence rate was 6%, transfer lesions 4.5%, post-op infection of 18%, and revision surgery of 3.8%. The study concluded that this surgery was favored over standard of care in terms of healing rate and time to heal.

Yammine K, Mouawad J, Honeine MO, Assi C. Keller and interphalangeal joint resection

arthroplasties for chronic noncomplicated diabetic ulcers of the hallux: a systematic

review and meta-analysis.

Foot Ankle Orthop. 2024;9(4):24730114241300139. doi:10.1177/24730114241300139.

Isn't surgery like this risky for diabetic and neuropathic patients?

Removing part of the great toe joint may sound like a big procedure, and it certainly needs to be carefully considered, particularly when attempts at conservative, non-surgical offloading methods have failed.

There are risks to surgery. The patient may get an infection. The patient may not heal well. Surgery could lead to amputation.

But this is true of ulcers that we don't treat surgically as well. As mentioned above, ulcerations in this area are the most common. A third of ulcers become infected within 12 weeks of forming. Many ulcers never manage to heal. And the recurrence rate of ulcers on the great toe is very high.

So it could be argued that in many cases it may be safer to perform a one-time surgery when the patient is younger, when blood sugar is controlled, and the circulation and overall health will never be better, than it is to allow ulcerations to recur, half of which may become infected, and a fifth of which may end up, at some point in time, with an amputation.

When we balance the risks with the success rates found in the studies above, the fact that this surgery can be done under local anesthetic, the patient may usually walk out of the operatory theater, and it's a procedure worth considering for some patients.

As seen in the studies cited above, the medical literature appears to support this consideration.

Selective Plantar Fascia Release

When the inability of the great toe to bend is not caused by a bony blockage of motion but is caused by a tight plantar fascia (the soft tissue band on the bottom of the foot), bone procedures like those described above may not be necessary.

We can tell if this is the case if the motion of the great toe is limited when the knee is straight and the ankle is at 90 degrees but bends freely when these structures are bent. In this case the issue is not a structural hallux limitus but a flexible hallux limitus.

In these case, a partial plantar fascia release may be considered.

In this procedure, the foot is anesthetized and a needle is used to cut the fascia, right, by using the needle in a back and forth sweeping action to release the fascia.

Only the section of plantar fascia attaching to the great toe is cut. In most cases a stitch isn't even necessary.

This can also be performed with a scalpel from the side of the foot rather than a needle. Some surgeons may feel this may be a cleaner cut through the fascia. This procedure requires one stitch.

Published evidence on selective plantar fascia release (partial plantar fasciectomy) for plantar hallux ulcers is limited and largely consists of small case series, but the available data suggest relatively high healing rates.

In a retrospective series of 17 patients with plantar hallux interphalangeal joint ulcers treated with selective plantar fascia release, 88% of ulcers healed, with a mean healing time of approximately 3 months. Transfer ulcerations were the most common complication.

Earlier work examining selective plantar fascia release for nonhealing diabetic plantar forefoot ulcers found that ulcer healing occurred in patients whose first metatarsophalangeal joint dorsiflexion improved substantially after surgery. This paper reported no recurrence at the original site during follow-up, though the numbers of patients was limited and our surgical caution tells us nothing always works.

Overall, these reports suggest that partial plantar fasciectomy can be an effective surgical off-loading procedure for recalcitrant neuropathic hallux ulcers, particularly when limited hallux dorsiflexion contributes to plantar pressure. Given the minimally-invasive nature of the procedure, it is worthwhile to consider.

Hussain F, et al. Clinical outcomes of selective plantar fascia release for hallux interphalangeal joint ulcers. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2023.

Kim JY, Hwang S. Selective plantar fascia release for nonhealing diabetic neuropathic plantar forefoot ulcers. Foot Ankle Int. 2012.

Below is pre-op (location of fascia release marked in blue) and at 10 months. Modest callus formation but no return of ulcer.

Ulcers at the Tip of a Contracted Great Toe

Sometimes the mechanical cause to a great toe ulcer isn't an inability to bend up at the base of the toe--where the toe attaches to the foot or the metatarsophalangeal joint (yellow arrow).

Instead, sometimes the great toe is contracted downward at the joint behind the toenail (the interphalangeal joint), (black arrow).

When the toe is contracted like this, it may lead to calluses, blisters, and ulcers on the tip of the great toe.

Flexor Tenotomy for Ulcers on the Tip of the Great Toe

When the contracture of the great toe is flexible (where the toe is able to be straightened by hand, a simple tenotomy (cutting the long flexor tendon, indicated by the black line) can be considered.

Cutting the tendon in flexible contractures of the great toe allows the surgeon to address the cause of the deformity, often permanently resolving the ulceration.

Technique

The tendon can be cut with a needle inserted beneath the tendon and moved back and forth as shown above in the selective plantar fascia release. The tendon can also be cut with a scalpel directed from the side of the toe. The latter procedure would require one stitch but the cut is cleaner.

A flexor tenotomy of the great toe is a relatively new technique and there are not many papers published on the technique, though there are a lot more papers written on the same technique for the smaller toes, which we discuss here.

However, in this 2024 study of 38 patients, 94.8% healed with an average healing time was 37-45 days. 4 had a recurrence at an average of 45 months.

Periasamy M, Muthukumar V, Asokan K, et al. Outcomes of Flexor Hallucis Longus Percutaneous Tenotomy for Great Toe Tip Callosity and Ulcers in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus: Cohort Study. J Foot Ankle Surg (Asia-Pacific). 2024.

In this 2020, a retrospective study was performed looking at 1,471 patients treated with flexor tenotomies between 2011 and 2019. 97 of these had undergone a flexor tenotomy for the great toe. The age range was 41-86 and the average follow up was 7 months. Mean time to heal was 28 days, with the range 5 to 105 days.

Haddon VE, Miller C, Esmeral N, Dahl C, Khakshoor D, Lewis E. Flexor tenotomy for the treatment of hallux ulcers [poster]. Presented at: Science & Management Symposium, Florida Podiatric Medical Association; 2020 Jan 15–19; Lake Buena Vista, FL.

In many cases, the contracture at the IPJ (white arrow) if rigid. In other words, it is arthritic and stuck in that contracted position. In these cases cutting the flexor tendon wound not allow the great toe to straighten.

In these cases, the bone must be addressed.

IPJ Arthroplasty for Ulcers on the Tip of the Great Toe

Here we see a portion of bone removed is the head of the proximal phalanx of the great toe. Below left you see an x-ray of a normal toe. Below right you see an x-ray of a toe with the portion of bone removed (area marked with the red arrow.)

This allows the toe to straighten, diminishes the pressure that causes the wound, and allows the wound to heal.

This procedure can also be applied when the joint isn't contracted at the interphalangeal joint, but dislocated. In the case below, the second toe bone was dislocated on the first toe bone causing an ulcer on the bottom of the toe. The ulcer had not healed in 8 months of conservative care.

However, the IPJ arthroplasty (Interphalangeal joint arthroplasty had to be performed to cure the ulcer.

Above left you can see the prominent bone (arrow) creating the ulcer (above right).

Below you can see the space created (arrow) by the surgery and the healed toe at week 4.

The first reference we could find regarding this procedure appears to be 1982, when Downs and Jacobs described the procedure for 6 great toe ulcers. 100% healed and none recurred over 2-5 years. There was one delayed incision healing.

Downs DM, Jacobs RL. Treatment of resistant ulcers on the plantar surface of the great toe in diabetics. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1982;64(6):930-3.

In 1994 a larger study was performed involving 45 procedures in 39 patients. 91% healed without recurrence during a 2-year follow up. The main conclusion was that the procedure avoided great toe loss while maintaining foot structure and function.

Rosenblum BI, Giurini JM, Chrzan JS, Habershaw GM. Preventing loss of the great toe with the hallux interphalangeal joint arthroplasty. J Foot Ankle Surg. 1994;33(6):557-60.

Three years later 25 more procedures were reported in 23 patients. 100% healed--23 healed uneventfully in under 4 weeks; the other 2 healed after a second procedure because the original bone specimen showed bone infection. No recurrences were reported with a 5-month follow up.

Martin DE, Blitch EL. Hallux interphalangeal joint ulceration: a surgical correction. Podiatry Inst Update. 1997;49:297-300.

In 2015 a comparative study was performed with 26 patients--13 in the surgical group, 13 in the non-surgical group. All 13 in the surgical group (100%) healed in an average of 3.5 weeks, there was one infection and 2 had slow wound healing. Only 1 (7.7%) had a recurrence.

In the non-surgical group, 61.5% healed in 9 weeks, 5 had deep infections, 53.9% recurrence and 5 ended up with amputation.

Lew E, Nicolosi N, McKee P. Evaluation of hallux interphalangeal joint arthroplasty compared with nonoperative treatment of recalcitrant hallux ulceration. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2015;54(4):541-8. doi:10.1053/j.jfas.2014.08.014.

Another series was reported in 2023 using a minimally-invasive technique. All 6 wounds healed with a mean healing time of 15.5 days and no recurrence in 1-2 years.

Ehredt DJ Jr, Reiner MM, Schnack LL, Reardon BK. Medially based hallux interphalangeal joint arthroplasty in the management of hallux ulceration: surgical technique and result in six consecutive cases. Wounds. 2023;35(4):80-84. doi:10.25270/wnds/22087.

In 2024, there was a meta-analysis involving 4 papers. The overall healing rate was 94% in 3.1 weeks. Recurrence was 6%, transfer lesions 4.5%, post-op infection or wound complications was 18% and revision surgery 3.8%.

Yammine K, Assi C. A Meta-Analysis of the Outcomes of Resection Arthroplasty for Resistant Hallucal Diabetic Ulcers. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2021 Jul-Aug;60(4):795-801. doi: 10.1053/j.jfas.2020.04.025. Epub 2021 Mar 6. PMID: 33771433.

The literature suggests the IPJ surgical procedure is safe and effective, particularly compared to non-surgical management.

Other Great Toe Procedures

On rare occasions, an ulcer may be caused by an extra bone on the bottom of the great toe.

This is known as an interphalangeal joint sesamoid,

and it may also cause enough pressure to create an ulcer.

Surgical correction of this problem involves the removal

of the sesamoid.

Some patients will develop ulcers as a result of a misaligned great toe, such as the bunion to the right.

In many cases, the crowding of the toes can cause friction.

In neuropathic patients, the toe bones can rub together enough that the toes rub together and an ulcer may develop.

Conservative measures (like pads to separate the toes or redistribute weight from the ulcer) may not always work, particularly when the arthritis is significant and the toe is rigid, and surgery may be required.

In some cases, a small incision can be made to file down a prominent bone where it abuts the adjacent toe.

In other cases, the toes may need to be realigned through bone cuts and hardware.

The 2026 radiograph to the right is case where the author performed bunion surgery 32 years ago. Note the screws in the 1st and 5th metatarsals.

The alignment for both the 1st and 5th metatarsals / toes is still very good, showing how surgery to realign the toes and metatarsals can give very good long-term results.

Sometimes ulcers are created as the great toe sits beneath the 2nd toe. Correction can involve straightening both toes, although this is a larger procedure requiring bones to mend. It can take months to heal, particularly in the diabetic foot.

Sometimes bony prominences can be filed down--even using minimal incisions--to resolve an ulcer.

Sometimes, the patient may opt to simply remove the 2nd toe. The plus side of this is that these procedures leave the patient with no bone to heal--only an incision less than an inch long.

These heal quite quickly (usually showering at 2 weeks and wound closure at 4 weeks) and allow for very quick return to activity (walk the same day and usually return to normal activities in 2-4 weeks).

Autumn dry maple leaf on a white backgro

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This page written by Dr. S A Schumacher
Podiatric Surgeon
Surrey, British Columbia Canada

www.drschumacher.ca

Unless otherwise indicated, all clinical photographs owned and provided by

Dr. S A Schumacher. They may be reproduced for educational purposes with attribution to:

Dr. S A Schumacher, Surrey, BC Canada